Polygraph Counter - Measures

Tis No Deceit to Deceive the Deceiver

—title of a play by Henry Chettle,

1598

Dr. Gordon H. Barland,

more than a decade before his recent retirement, has defined countermeasures

as “deliberate techniques that deceptive subjects use in

an attempt to appear non-deceptive when physiological responses

are being monitored during a PDD [psychophysiological detection

of deception] examination.”

who worked as a DoDPI researcher for23

We will adopt a broader definition than Dr. Barland, and define

polygraph countermeasures as simply “deliberate techniques that

may be used to ‘pass’ a polygraph interrogation.” While deceptive

persons may choose to employ countermeasures in order to appear

non-deceptive, truthful persons may also choose to use them to

protect themselves against a false positive outcome.

In this chapter, we will discuss three basic methods for protecting

yourself against a false positive outcome:

1. refusal to submit to polygraph interrogation;

2. complete honesty;

3. polygraph countermeasures.

Just Say No

The surest approach to avoid a false positive outcome is to refuse to

submit to polygraph interrogation. However, this approach may

have serious adverse consequences. If you refuse to submit to a

polygraph screening interrogation, you may be denied employment,

and if already employed, you may lose your job.

A Special Note to FBI Applicants

Those considering employment in the Federal Bureau of Investigation

should seriously consider refusing to submit to the polygraph

and withdrawing from the application process. Since the events of

11

applicants has risen to about

The consequences of failing an FBI pre-employment polygraph examination

are more serious than with other agencies:

• You will be disqualified from FBI employment for life;

• Your polygraph failure will be recorded in your permanent

FBI HQ file;

• You may be blacklisted from employment with other federal

law enforcement agencies, and may have difficulty finding

employment with local agencies as well;

• You will have difficulty ever obtaining a job that requires a

security clearance. When background investigators do a National

Agency Check, they will learn that you have an FBI HQ

file; upon obtaining your file, they will see that you failed the

polygraph. No security clearance adjudicator is eager to put

his or her neck on the line by granting a clearance to someone

who “failed” a polygraph “test.”

You may wish to carefully consider whether the FBI polygraph is a

risk worth taking.

September 2001, the polygraph failure rate among special agent50% (Mondics 2002; Geracimos 2002).

If You Are Suspected of a Crime

If you have been asked to submit to a polygraph examination in

connection with a criminal investigation, “just say no!” You should

not submit to

you refused to submit to a polygraph “test” will not be admissible

any polygraph “test.” (In most cases, the fact that

as evidence in court.) Instead, you should get a lawyer. If for some

reason your lawyer advises you to submit to a police polygraph

interrogation, ask him to read this book. Just like a majority of the

public at large, many lawyers are simply ignorant of the true nature

of the polygraph process. If, after reading this book, your lawyer

still

fire your lawyer. You have little to gain by submitting to a polygraph

interrogation and much to lose: if you “pass,” the police may well

continue to suspect you regardless; if you “fail,” it will only confirm

their suspicions, and news of your “failure” may well be leaked to

the local media to smear you. As John A. Larson, a pioneer of

polygraphic lie detection lamented:

advises you to submit to a polygraph “test,” you should probably

I originally hoped that instrumental lie detection would become

a legitimate part of professional police science. It is little more

than a racket. The lie detector, as used in many places, is nothing

more than a psychological third-degree aimed at extorting confessions

as the old physical beatings were. At times I’m sorry I ever

had any part in its development.

24

Top-flight defense attorneys

“test” conducted by the police or any other authority. In the

few cases where clients are polygraphed (most notably high profile

cases where the client is being tried in the media), the attorney

makes arrangements to hire a private polygrapher. The “test” is

conducted in private, and the results, which are protected by

attorney-client privilege, are released only if the client “passes.”

This was the protocol used by the attorneys for O.J. Simpson, John

and Patsy Ramsey, and Gary Condit. The Ramseys and Condit

“passed,” and their results were therefore made public. Mr. Simpson

apparently fared worse, and his results were never made public.

never let their clients submit to a polygraph

(After word got out that Mr. Simpson had been polygraphed by a

private examiner, the official explanation was that he was hooked

up to the polygraph to see how it works, but that no actual “test”

was conducted.)

In refusing to submit to polygraphic interrogation, you may additionally

use the “complete honesty” approach described below.

If, for some reason, you still feel compelled to submit to a polygraph

interrogation, some reasonable safeguards you may wish to adopt

include:

1. Refuse to sign any agreement stipulating that the polygraph

results will be admissible as evidence in court;

2. Insist that your lawyer be present with you during the

entire

polygraph examination;

3. Refuse to submit to any “post-test” interrogation;

4. Insist that the entire polygraph examination be video recorded

(or at a minimum audio recorded) and that a copy of the

recording be made available to you immediately upon completion

of the polygraph session.

Complete Honesty

A second approach is to be completely honest with your polygrapher.

Tell him that you know the lie behind the lie detector. Explain to

him that you understand that the true purpose of the “stim test” is

to dupe you into believing in the validity of polygraphic lie detection.

Tell him that you understand the trickery behind “control” question

“tests”—whether probable- or directed-lie. Explain that you understand

the difference between “control,” relevant, and irrelevant questions

and that you have studied and know how to employ polygraph

countermeasures. Give him a printout of this book to prove it in a

way that he will not be able to later deny. Explain to him that you

are not a suitable candidate for polygraphic interrogation, and request

that your polygraph “testing” be waived.

One of the authors of this book knows of a Department of Defense

employee whose polygraph screening was waived when he explained

to his polygrapher that he understood how polygraph “tests” work

and that he had received training in how to defeat them.

But beware! While the Wizard of Oz may have meekly admitted

to being a humbug once the curtain was drawn aside and his humbuggery

laid bare, your polygrapher might not be so accommodating.

One graduate of DoDPI has cautioned that if a subject were to

follow this “complete honesty” approach, the polygrapher would

probably go ahead with the polygraph interrogation anyhow and

arbitrarily accuse the subject of having employed countermeasures.

Maureen Lenihan is a case in point. She worked as a research assistant

with the federal Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government

Secrecy, also known as the “Moynihan Commission.”

later applied for employment with the CIA. She explained to her

CIA polygrapher that she had researched polygraphy while working

with the Commission. The polygrapher proceeded with the interrogation

anyhow, and later accused her of having employed countermeasures.

(Weiner,

When one of the authors of this book specifically asked then

president of the American Polygraph Association, Mr. Milton O.

“Skip” Webb, Jr., how an APA member should proceed if a subject

were to reveal that he/she has read

25 She1999)The Lie Behind the Lie Detector

and understands the psychological manipulations involved in both

the “stim test” and the “control” questions, Mr. Webb declined to

provide an explanation.

26

In a discussion on the AntiPolygraph.org message board,

coauthor asked Dr. Barland:

What would you say to the earnest employee or applicant for

employment who wants a straightforward answer to this simple

question: what will the polygrapher do if I admit to him/her that

I understand “the lie behind the lie detector?”

In reply, Dr. Barland stated that he “would have no qualms about

conducting an examination,” adding that his personal outlook is,

“when in doubt, give it a try and see what happens.” He indicated

that in such a situation, it would make good sense to switch to a

technique such as the Relevant/Irrelevant “test,” which he believes

is less susceptible to countermeasures. But when asked on what

scientific basis he expected to be able to distinguish truth from

deception using this thoroughly discredited technique, Dr. Barland

declined to answer.

We believe that the ethically preferable choice for those facing

polygraphic interrogation is to either refuse to submit or to use the

“complete honesty” approach (or both). If everyone who reads this

book were to do so, it would force the agencies that are using

polygraphy against their employees and prospective employees—as

well as the elected representatives who have sanctioned it—to confront

the plain truth that the lie behind the lie detector has been

exposed. It would quickly spell the end for polygraphy. But we are

also aware that these two choices carry with them a high “first-mover

disadvantage” and may entail serious adverse consequences for those

with the moral courage to adopt them.

We believe that it is not unethical for truthful persons—faced

with a government that routinely lies to and deceives its employees

and prospective employees through the polygraph screening process—

to employ polygraph countermeasures to protect themselves

Polygraph Countermeasures:

How to Pass a Polygraph “Test”

(First, if you haven’t read Chapter

carefully.)

The key to “passing” a polygraph “test”—that is, to producing a

“truthful” chart—is to produce stronger physiological responses

when answering the “control” questions than when answering the

relevant questions.

We Americans have a thriving folklore about how to beat a polygraph

“test.” You may have heard that you can pass by taking drugs

such as meprobamate, by rubbing antiperspirant on your fingertips,

or through meditation or hypnosis, or by wiggling your toes, or

flexing your arms, or coughing. Forget these. They are prescriptions

for failure.

Perhaps the most widely-known countermeasure is the old tackin-

the-shoe. While this countermeasure (if properly applied) can

be effective, polygraphers have developed counter-countermeasures

for it (the simplest being to simply make the subject remove his

shoes).

Read on to learn how to pass your polygraph interrogation.

3, go back to page 86 and read it

Two Types of Countermeasures

There are two basic types of polygraph countermeasures: behavioral

and chart-recording manipulation. Behavioral countermeasures are

those things that you can do to appear honest and truthful to your

polygrapher, while chart-recording manipulations are those countermeasures

that will actually affect the physiological responses measured

by the polygraph instrument. We will discuss both types,

on the Polygraph Procedure forum of the AntiPolygraph.org message board.

beginning with behavioral countermeasures.

Make No Admissions

Rule number one is to make no admissions! While the lie detector

cannot detect lies (it only records physiological responses), any admissions

you make will be duly noted by your polygrapher. Admissions

that may seem minor to you can be spun out of all proportion

by your polygrapher. He sees admissions as trophies. Don’t give

him any.

The only exceptions to this rule are that, during the “pre-test”

interview, you may make minor admissions regarding the “control”

questions only, such as stealing candy when you were a child, or

lying to your parents, or taking pens home from work. But go no

further.

In addition, if you are submitting to a directed-lie “Control” Question

“Test” such as the TES format used by the Departments of

Defense and Energy, you should not stubbornly deny having ever

committed one of the common human failings used in the directedlie

“control” questions such as violating a traffic law, or having told

a lie, even once in your life, etc. (See p.

directed-lie “control” questions.)

105 for a list of common

…And Sign No Statements

A common tactic used by polygraphers is to request the subject to

write out and sign a statement listing the admissions they have

supposedly made. It may not be in your interest to sign any such

statement. Suppose, for example, you admit during your “pre-test”

interview, or in the pre-polygraph questionnaire that some law enforcement

agencies require applicants to fill out, that you smoked

marijuana three times while you were in high school. Your polygrapher

asks, “Can you really be sure that it was only three times? Any

doubt in your mind will show up on the polygraph. Would it be

fair to say that you used marijuana less than ten times? Yes? Then

very well, why don’t you write that down here and sign.”

When you sign that statement saying that you used marijuana “less

than ten times” instead of the three times that you said earlier,

you’ve just given your polygrapher a signed “confession” that he

can use to portray you as having been dishonest when you claimed

to have used marijuana only three times.

Polygraph “Tests” are Interrogations

Your polygraph “test” is actually an interrogation. Even if you have

not been accused of anything specific but instead face polygraph

screening, you must never forget that your polygraph “test” is actually

an interrogation.

Some security officials are fond of the quip, “In God we trust—all

others we polygraph.” Don’t

polygrapher. Some will be friendly, others confrontational. Some

will regard you as a criminal suspect, while others will expect you

to pass (especially when large numbers of employees are screened).

Other polygraphers will have decided

to fail you before the polygraph

interrogation even begins.

Your polygrapher may very

well be polite, pleasantmannered,

and congenial, but he

is also a trained interrogator who

understands that he may at first

catch more flies with honey than

with vinegar. He is not your

friend. He is not there to “help”

you. Be on your guard at all

times.

you make the mistake of trusting your

Recognizing Common Interrogation Tactics

Your polygrapher is a trained interrogator. Polygraph schools devote

a substantial portion of their curricula to teaching students tech-

niques for duping examinees into making damaging admissions.

And many polygraph examiners are already experienced criminal

investigators well before they are sent to polygraph school. This is

almost always the case when the polygrapher is a law enforcement

officer. In some agencies, polygraph examiners may be evaluated

based on the number of admissions or confessions they receive

(which gives them a strong incentive to get some kind of statement

from you that can be characterized as such). This was once—and

may still be—the case with FBI polygraphers. And John F. Sullivan,

who retired from the CIA in

Agency’s polygraph division, reports that CIA polygraphers are evaluated

precisely on the basis of admissions obtained (Sullivan,

at p.

1999 after a 30-year career in the2002,174):

…Our performance is evaluated on the number of admissions

we obtain and the amount of information developed from those

we test.

Perhaps the most common (and most effective) interrogation technique

employed by polygraph examiners involves projecting a false

sense of empathy for you and your situation. The examiner’s goal

when using this approach is to get you to believe that he is there to

help you. (He isn’t.) When employing this approach, the examiner

is likely to downplay the seriousness of the behavior you are being

asked about or accused of. For example, the examiner may tell you

that his agency is “not looking for Boy Scouts.” He may even claim

that he engaged in the very same activity that he is asking you

about or accusing you of and was still hired. Don’t fall for it.

One of the gravest mistakes one can possibly make is to believe

that your polygrapher is the one exception and that he is there not

to interrogate, but rather to help you along in the application process.

The polygrapher may indeed be a “nice” guy. You may even become

friends with him if you are eventually hired. Nonetheless, this does

not change the fact that he is an interrogator, and his job is to get

you to make disqualifying admissions.

During the “post-test” phase, the polygrapher may alternatively take

an adversarial approach. He may instruct you to move your chair

so that your back is to the corner. He may then accuse you of being

deceptive in a hostile and aggressive manner. He may invade your

personal space and posture himself in a threatening manner. This is

a favorite tactic of U.S. Secret Service polygraphers. Keep your cool

and deny the polygrapher’s allegations in a forceful but respectful

manner.

The aggressive and empathetic approaches are often combined by

the polygrapher/interrogator. Commonly known as the “good

cop/bad cop” routine, in the context of a polygraph interrogation,

the polygrapher/interrogator adopts one approach and immediately

makes a

Another common interrogation technique is known as the “egotistical

approach.” Here, the polygrapher’s goal is to play upon

your pride. He may bring up your academic achievements, language

skills, or other attributes that make you an attractive candidate for

the position. The goal here is to make you feel that you are no

ordinary applicant and that the agency will bend over backward to

hire you. After doing this, he is likely to return to the empathy

approach, downplaying the seriousness of the behavior in question

and asking you to admit to it so he can “go to bat” for you against

the supervisors at headquarters. (Janniro,

To get a good sense of the “themes” that may be spun by polygraphers

in an attempt obtain admissions, see pages

“Interview and Interrogation” handbook, which is available for

download on AntiPolygraph.org.

180-degree turn toward the other.1991, pp. 38-39)83–91 of the DoDPI28

Your goal during any interrogation is to avoid making damaging

admissions or statements that may lead the polygrapher on to un-

welcome lines of questioning.

Make a Good First Impression

Your polygrapher’s subjective opinion of you may influence the

outcome of your polygraph interrogation. Look your best. Make

sure you have a conservative haircut; dress professionally, polish

your shoes. If you’re a woman, wear make-up, but not too much.

Be friendly. Smile. Keep good eye contact with your polygrapher,

but don’t stare. Your polygrapher may interpret avoidance of eye

contact as a sign of deception. Don’t mumble. Answer questions

directly—with confidence and without hesitation—but be natural.

You don’t want to appear like Data in “Star Trek: The Next Generation.”

Arrive Early to Avoid Being Late

The last thing you want to do is to arrive late for your polygraph

interrogation. Your polygrapher may interpret your late arrival as a

subconscious attempt to avoid the polygraph—heightening his suspicion

of you even before he asks his first question. If the drive to

the polygraph site will be in rush hour traffic or take more than an

hour, you might want to get a hotel room near the “test” site the

night before.

A Warning to U.S. Secret Service Applicants

If you are seeking employment with the U.S. Secret Service, your

pre-employment polygraph “test” will probably begin in the morning

and continue into the afternoon with no break for lunch. This

seems to be a deliberate psychological tactic designed to wear down

applicants. Make sure to get a good breakfast.

Remember, You Are Being Watched

Be aware that from the moment you arrive for your polygraph

interrogation, your polygrapher will be observing you. He will size

you up based not only on what you say, but also on your appearance

and demeanor. When you arrive early, you don’t want to be seen

fidgeting in the waiting room, which, like the interrogation room

itself, may be equipped with a two-way mirror or a concealed video

camera. You might consider bringing something to read or otherwise

keep yourself productively occupied while waiting.

If you choose to bring something to read, your choice of reading

material is important, because it, too, will make a subtle impression

on your polygrapher. Bring something like a professional journal, a

publication like

Journal,

it’s something highbrow. Don’t bring a trashy dime novel or tabloid

newspaper. And by all means, don’t bring anything remotely related

to polygraphy! In addition, you might not want to bring one of the

publications listed above—polygraphers who read this book might

now become suspicious if you do. You want something that will

subtly make a favorable impression on your polygrapher. (Clifton,

Newsweek, National Geographic, or The Wall Streetor a bestselling novel or professional book. Just make sure

1991

wish to bring a briefcase with paperwork, a notebook computer, or

PDA to work on while you wait. A third alternative is to bring

nothing at all and calmly wait: some polygraphers who read this

book may come to view a subject’s bringing reading material or

work with him to be a telltale for countermeasure use. The key

point remains not to be seen nervously fidgeting while you are

waiting.

The “Pre-Test” Interview

Be polite and cordial. Answer your polygrapher’s questions directly,

but remember to make no damaging admissions! In response to

the “control” questions, you may admit to some minor childhood

misdeeds. But in response to the relevant questions, you should

make no admissions whatsoever. Any minor admissions you make

regarding the relevant questions may be spun out of all proportion

by your polygrapher.

Keep your answers short. Answer any yes/no questions with a simple

“yes” or “no.” Avoid replies such as “yes, basically” or “not really.”

Such evasive answers will make you appear deceptive to your polygrapher.

Don’t be chatty or palsy-walsy with your polygrapher. If

you are overly talkative and ingratiating, your polygrapher may

interpret this as a sign of anxiety—and hence deception. Moreover,

he may use superfluous information you provide to fabricate an

admission.

How Polygraphers May Expect Truthful Subjects to Behave

According to two luminaries of the polygraph field, John E. Reid

and Richard O. Arther (Reid & Arther,

traits are typical of truthful subjects:

1953), the following behavioral

Because everyone given a lie-detector examination is suspected of

some wrongdoing, innocent subjects are usually very glad to be

given an opportunity to prove their innocence. Often they have

requested it so that no suspicion will be directed towards them.

This belief that the innocent have in the accuracy of the lie-detector,

and that they will be exonerated, is usually shown by their attitude.

This attitude is one of genuine confidence in both the machine

and the examiner. Because of this confidence they regard the

examination as an experience they will want to relate to their

family and friends.

Innocent subjects may refer to their nervousness, but after the

assurance of the examiner that nervousness makes no difference,

they are usually convinced and make no further reference to it.

Innocent subjects are often at ease, light-hearted, and talkative.

However, they are very sincere and their straight-forwardness is

displayed when they discuss the case during the interview.

Their attitude is later manifested by their giving complete cooperation

during the test....However, while being cooperative and

sincere, innocent subjects are not overly polite or solicitous.

In a separate article, Reid (

polygraph subject would hypothetically answer “No” in response to

the question, “Did you steal the

1982) goes on to describe how a truthful$500?”:

The subject who answers “NO” and is direct and unequivocal -

almost angry and very crisp is telling the truth.

The subject who says “NO” in a very final way is telling the truth.

The subject who says “NO” indicating disbelief is telling the truth.

The subject who says “NO” indicating you must be kidding is

telling the truth and,

The subject who says “NO” in a challenging way, like “I should

say not” is telling the truth.

How Polygraphers May Expect Deceptive Subjects to Behave

Reid and Arther (

postpone their polygraph examinations and tend to be late for their

appointments or fail to appear at all. They further opine:

1953) hold that guilty subjects will often try to

Once in the examining room the guilty person often looks very

worried and is highly nervous. This nervousness is manifested in

a variety of ways, e.g., acting aggressive, having a bitter attitude,

appearing to be in a shocked condition, experiencing mental

blocks, being evasive, having an extremely dry mouth, continually

sighing or yawning, refusing to look the examiner in the eye, and

moving about. Sometimes he is too friendly or too polite.

Guilty subjects repeatedly feel it necessary to explain before the

examination why their responses might mislead the examiner

into believing that they are lying. Hence, they complain of being

nervous, and if that does not seem to impress the examiner, they

further emphasize their “nervous condition” or mention a physical

defect which they may or may not actually have. Also, they frequently

feel it necessary to assure the examiner that they are very

religious, hoping the examiner will dismiss them as innocent because

of their alleged righteousness.

Guilty subjects sometimes claim that the apparatus is causing

them physical pain. They do this for at least one of several reasons.

First, they hope that the examiner will turn off the instrument,

remove the apparatus, apologize for the pain that was caused,

and report to the investigators that this subject cannot be examined

because of his great pain sensitivity. Second, its [

sic] provides

the examiner form obtaining a suitable recording. Third, they are

hoping that the examiner, when interpreting the record, will

wrongly decide that their guilty responses are pain and report

them innocent.

...

Since the entire lie-detector situation is unpleasant to most guilty

subjects, they usually want to leave the examining room as soon

as possible. Therefore, they inquire after the first test as to how

they came out, ask if the examination is not over yet, complain

that the examination is taking much too long, seek a speedy release

by alleging that they have another appointment, or refuse to continue

with the examination. When leaving they often quickly shake

the examiner’s hand and hurry out of the laboratory.

detectorthem with an excuse for not sitting still and thereby preventing

Regarding how a deceptive subject would hypothetically answer

“No,” in response to the question, “Did you steal the

(

$500?” Reid1982) writes:

The subject [who] says:

“NO” - crosses his legs and shifts in the chair is lying.

“NO” - looks in a different direction, down and up, or sideways

is lying.

“NO” - closes his eyes is actually seeking to escape and is lying

[sic, trying?] to hide.

“NO” - shakes his head NO and tried to place more emphasis on

NO to be more convincing.

“NO” - answers late is lying. Actually the delay is caused by the

debate in his mind, “Shall I say YES, I better say NO.”

“NO” - questions. A breathless sort of way is lying but is offering

a “NO” as “try that on for size” is lying.

“NO” - hesitates and appears to be thinking is actually hiding

behind an alleged seriousness is lying.

“NO” - studies, sort of false deliberation is lying.

“NO” - apologizes in saying "NO" is lying.

“NO” - plead is lying.

“NO” - qualifies the NO by the inflection of the voice is lying.

“NO” - has an empty or washed-out look, but this is a last ditch

effort to “get out from under” actually is lying.

“NO” - pauses and looks like the question was not directed to

him even though he and the questioner are the only ones in the

room and the question is directed to him. He almost appears to

be in an hypnotic state. He is lying.

“NO” - studied eyes is lying.

Mind Games

Your polygrapher/interrogator may play little games with you to

establish his dominance. Upon entering the polygraph room, you

should find that it is skillfully orchestrated for interviewing and

interrogation. The room will be sparsely furnished, with a table for

the polygraph instrument, a chair for the polygrapher, a chair for

you to sit in while connected to the polygraph instrument, and,

quite possibly, a third chair for you to sit in during the “pre-test”

phase. Your chair for the “pre-test” interview will in all likelihood

be stationary, while your polygrapher’s chair will probably be wheeled

for his ease of movement, placing you at a psychological disadvantage.

Upon entering the room, you may find that the chair you are to

sit in is facing the wrong direction or in the wrong location. By

directing you to move the chair, your polygrapher may subtly demonstrate

that

Your polygrapher may instruct you to remove your coat and hand

it to him, whereupon he will remove it from the room. He does this

to make you feel as though you are being psychologically “stripped.”

And by taking your coat out of the room, he wants you to feel that

he now controls a piece of you.

You may also be made to wait for your polygraph interrogation

in an uncomfortably overheated waiting room.

he is in control.

Do not be intimidated by your polygrapher’s little mind games.

Play along. Let your polygrapher think that he is in control.

More Smoke and Mirrors

A former polygrapher who gave up polygraphy because he considered

certain aspects of it to be unethical has revealed some additional

tricks of the trade (Anonymous, n.d., c):

The fake card trick was not the only ploy built into the school

curriculum to give the examiner some help in reaching his conclusion.

One such item was a serious plea to the testee to go to

the washroom and scrub both hands thoroughly - because “the

instruments won’t give me good results unless your hands are

spotlessly clean.” When the person goes to the empty bathroom

by himself, the examiner spies on his activity through a one-way

mirror. If the individual seems intent on foiling the examination

by failing to wash the hands, the examiner gets a pretty good hint

that he is not a truthful person. Often one hears the water running

and sees the individual pretending to wash his or her hands.

A similar stunt is to leave him/her in the room alone with the

polygraph itself, always laying on a stern injunction not to touch

or even breathe on the equipment because “it’s so delicately balanced

it will screw up all my results if it’s moved or shaken.”

Once again a one-way mirror comes into play. It is amazing how

many times one sees a wise-guy trying to loosen a wire or otherwise

shake-up the instruments.

If your polygrapher instructs you to wash your hands, do so. If left

alone in the polygraph room, don’t tamper with any equipment.

And

surveillance (for example, by making faces or gesturing toward any

mirror)!

don’t make it obvious that you know you might be under

“So What Do You Know About Polygraph Testing?”

At some point during the “pre-test” interview, your polygrapher

will ask you what you know about polygraphy. Don’t get into an

argument with him about the validity of this voodoo science! Polygraphy

is his profession, and if you question it, he will take offense

(and be more likely to conclude that you are deceptive).

If you’ve been polygraphed before, you can mention it. But don’t

tell your polygrapher that you’ve read this book or that you’ve

done research on the Internet and visited such websites as

AntiPolygraph.org! If you admit to having researched polygraphy,

your polygrapher will become suspicious. His next questions may

well be, “Why have you educated yourself so much about the polygraph?

Do you have something to fear from it?” Instead, provide a

general answer to his question about what you know about polygraphy,

such as:

• I heard on T.V. that they’re almost always accurate when

used by a skilled examiner. Is that right?

• A friend of mine in law enforcement said not to worry, just

go in and tell the truth, and you’ll have no problem!

• I understand that polygraphs are a lot more accurate than

those voice stress analyzers. (Polygraphers generally hold the competing

voodoo science of Computerized Voice Stress Analysis

[CVSA] in utter contempt.)

• I read in the paper that the polygraph has been constantly

improving with time and that the latest computerized polygraphs

are very reliable.

• When I was in grade school, a polygraph examiner came

and gave a demonstration to my class and showed us how the test

is done using my teacher as a volunteer. She lied about a card she

had picked from a deck, and the polygraph examiner caught her

lie and was even able to figure out exactly which card she had

picked!

• I heard it caught O.J. in a lie! (Virtually no one in the polygraph

community believes O.J. Simpson to be innocent of the

murder of his ex-wife, Nicole.)

and are just the kind of thing your polygrapher wants to hear.

Whatever answer you give, don’t memorize and repeat the above

examples word-for-word. Polygraphers will be reading this book,

too, and if something you say exactly matches something in this

book, your polygrapher might notice! You may wish to combine

elements from any of the above examples with your own experience,

or think of new examples on your own. And you can always fall

back on ignorance: “I really don’t understand how polygraph tests

work.”

All of these answers show confidence in the validity of polygraphy

Tips for Identifying “Control” Questions

During the “pre-test” phase, your polygrapher will review with you

the questions that he’ll be asking during the “in-test” phase. You

need to pay close attention and be able to distinguish between relevant,

irrelevant, and, most importantly, “control” questions.

Note that in directed-lie formats such as the TES, your polygrapher

will identify the “control” questions for you: they are the ones which

he will instruct you to answer falsely. When we speak of identifying

“control” questions below, we’ll be referring to probable-lie “control”

questions.

In order to become adept at identifying “control” questions, however,

you need to understand the rationale behind them. (We discussed

“control” questions at some length in Chapter

3 at pages

97Ð105.

will not do.

) Simply memorizing lists of common “control” questions

Note:

with which you are applying for employment, do not attempt to characterize

each question on the list as a potential polygraph question.

Questions asked during the “in-test” phase (that is, while you’re attached

to the polygraph instrument) often differ greatly from those provided

on background questionnaires, and you will be better off studying

question types here.

If you receive a lengthy background questionnaire from an agency

As explained in Chapter 3, probable-lie “control” questions are concerned

with behavior that the polygrapher secretly assumes most

people in society—even those who will be selected for hiring or

granted a high level security clearance, etc.—will not be able to

deny with

when interpreting each of the examiner’s questions as strictly as

possible: “Will the polygrapher assume that even a very honest

person would have a hard time answering this question

Take for example the question, “Did you ever cheat in school?”

You may not have broken into faculty offices to steal an exam. But

most people have at some point glanced at another student’s paper

during an exam or copied a friend’s homework. At the very least,

the great majority of students have likely written segments in research

papers that should have been better cited. Thus, this is a control

question.

Consider next the question, “Have you ever stolen anything?”

Interpreted strictly, this question includes the theft of pens, pencils,

a sip of soda before you top off your self-serve drink at the local fast

food restaurant, etc. Once again, since almost everyone has done

such things, polygraphers will assume that your denial is less than

completely truthful. Hence, this a control question.

Contrast this with the following question: “Have you ever stolen

anything worth over

“control” question, the polygrapher and the agency employing him

would have to assume that all applicants or employees screened

have stolen something worth this substantial amount. This is simply

not a reasonable expectation. The polygrapher would not assume

that everyone—including those who will be or have already been

hired—has pilfered objects of such high value. In actuality, nearly

everyone (except out-and-out criminals) will have an easy time

answering this one truthfully without even thinking about it. Thus,

100% truthfulness. Ask yourself the following question100% truthfully?”$200/$500, etc.?” For this question to be a

this does not fit the mold of a “control” question. It is a relevant

question.

Naturally, you may wonder, “What is the dollar cut-off amount?”

This depends on what the agency’s policy is regarding acceptable

thefts. You must consider whether or not the agency believes that

even the great majority of the people it would be willing to hire (as

well as current employees) have engaged in this behavior (no matter

how despicable the polygrapher may attempt to convince you he

considers it to be). We recommend that you assume that any preemployment

screening question that includes a minimum dollar

amount (that is, “Have you ever stolen anything worth more than

__ dollars?”) is relevant.

Note:

screening is, “Have you ever stolen money from an employer?”

Although agencies assume that all applicants have helped themselves

to small things (office supplies, etc.), they do not assume that applicants

they wish to hire have helped themselves to the cash drawer. The

question is a relevant one.

Another common theft-related question in pre-employment polygraph

Ambiguity in “Control” Questions

One of the hallmarks of “control” questions is ambiguity. Their

scope tends not to be clearly defined. Relevant questions, by contrast,

tend to be quite specific and leave little room for doubt.

Take, for instance, the common “control” question, “Have you

ever told a lie?” Strictly speaking, this question includes all lies,

even those you told as a young child, or regarding your opinion of

someone’s new hairstyle, and so forth.

If the examinee keeps answering “yes” to this question during the

“pre-test” interview and admitting to having told little white lies,

the polygrapher may modify the question to, “Have you ever lied

about anything

because just what is meant by “serious” has not been defined for

the examinee. It remains a “control” question.

serious?” Note that the question is still ambiguous

Let us consider the question, “Have you ever committed a crime

for which you have not been caught?” Here, the scope of the term

“crime” is not clearly defined. Technically speaking, jaywalking,

public urination, underage drinking, and unauthorized downloading

of copyrighted music from the Internet are illegal. This is a “control”

question.

However, this question can be transformed from a “control” to a

relevant question with a simple change in wording. “Have you ever

committed an undetected

asked by U.S. Secret Service polygraphers in pre-employment

screening. During the “pre-test” interview, the examiner carefully

explains exactly what crimes the Secret Service considers to be “serious”

for the purposes of this question. This list includes murder,

robbery, rape, arson, grand larceny, etc. The examiner may note

that the question does not include the possession and use of false

identification for purposes of underage alcohol consumption, but

that it does include the sale of such counterfeit documents. It is not

expected that most applicants have committed a serious undetected

crime, and the question is not ambiguous. It is a relevant question.

serious crime?” is a standard relevant question

“Read” the Polygrapher

The polygrapher’s demeanor often provides helpful insight into the

nature of each question. Remember, upon introducing “control”

questions, the polygrapher will usually attempt to steer you into a

denial. For example, he might tell you that his agency has absolutely

no tolerance for academic dishonesty before asking, “Did

cheat in school?”

A common tactic used during the “pre-test” phase to manipulate

the subject into a denial goes as follows:

The polygrapher introduces the control question, for example,“

Have you ever told a lie?”

The examinee

The polygrapher rewords the question to, “Besides what you have

told me, have you ever told a lie?”

The examinee responds affirmatively yet again and makes another

minor admission.

After a few cycles of this, the polygrapher launches into a little

speech on the importance of honesty and explain what a dim view

his agency takes to lying. He then asks the leading question, “You

haven’t lied about anything else now,

have you?”

Another tip for “reading” your polygrapher is this: if you ask for

clarification regarding what is meant by a question, does he provide

a helpful explanation? If he sidesteps your question with an evasive

answer like, “It means whatever you think it means,” then it is a

good bet that the question is a “control” question.

Has the question been prefaced with a modifier? Since most subjects

normally make some minor admissions to the “control” questions

during the pre-test interview, they are frequently rephrased with a

modifier like “other than what you have told me.”

Don’t fall into the trap, however, of thinking that every question

that is modified in this manner is a “control” question. For example,

suppose you are being polygraphed for employment with an agency

whose stated policy is that marijuana use up to

but that any usage in excess thereof is an automatic disqualifier. If

you admit having used marijuana six times, one of your

15 times is acceptablerelevant

questions may well be, “Besides what you told me, have you ever

used any illegal drugs?” The key point here is that while modifiers

such as “besides” often accompany a “control” question, the mere

presence of such a modifier does not guarantee that a question is a

“control” question.

A Final Tip on Identifying “Control” Questions

Note that it is standard practice for polygraphers to review the

different kinds of questions

example, in DoDPI’s “Law Enforcement Pre-Employment Test,”

as groups during the pre-test phase. For

questions to be asked are reviewed, then the “control” questions,

and finally, the irrelevant questions are reviewed. This practice of

grouping questions by type during the pre-test phase makes identifying

“control” questions easier.

the sacrifice relevant question is introduced first, then the relevant

Want to Get Anything Off Your Chest? No!

After he has reviewed with you the questions he’ll be asking during

the “in-test” phase, your polygrapher will give you the “opportunity”

to get anything off your chest that may be “bothering” you. Don’t

fall for it. Make no admissions.

Chart-Recording Manipulations

We will discuss here manipulations to affect the breathing and cardio

channels of the polygraph instrument. These manipulations may

also affect the electrodermal channel.

Breathing Countermeasures

Your polygrapher will attach the polygraph’s electrodes to your

ring and index fingers, the inflatable pressure cuff to your arm (or

perhaps a transducer set to your thumb instead), and place one

pneumograph tube around your chest and the other around your

abdomen. From the moment the pneumograph tubes go on, you

need to be concerned about your breathing. Many people are falsely

accused of attempting to “beat the box” because they (in the polygrapher’s

opinion) breathe too deeply or too slowly or both.

Your polygrapher will be happy if your breathing rate is between

about

each. Pick a breathing rate within this range that is comfortable for

you and take relatively shallow—not deep—breaths. Each breath

should be about the same length. Practice until it becomes second

nature.

15 and 30 breaths (in and out) per minute, or 2Ð4 seconds

You should maintain this baseline breathing pattern until the pneumograph

tubes are removed from your chest and abdomen. Don’t

relax and change your breathing pattern as soon as the last question

has been asked! The polygraph is still recording your breathing,

and your polygrapher may let the instrument continue recording

your physiological responses for a minute or so after asking his last

question in order to see if your breathing pattern changes. He may

interpret any change after the last question is asked as an indication

that you were employing countermeasures.

Your polygrapher will ask his series of questions, with a pause of

about

categorized the questions he reviewed with you as “control,”

relevant, or irrelevant during the “pre-test” interview. There will be

no surprises.

question, then you should err on the side of caution and assume that it

is relevant.

20Ð30 seconds between questions. You will have already mentallyIf you cannot decide whether a question is a “control”

As soon as you recognize that the question your polygrapher is

asking is a “control” question, or, alternatively, immediately after

answering the question, change your baseline breathing pattern to

produce one of the five pneumograph reactions that DoDPI considers

to be most significant in chart scoring:

29

Note:

None of these manipulations call for deep breathing, that is,

filling your lungs to full or nearly full capacity. Such deep breathing is

likely to be interpreted by your polygrapher as an attempted countermeasure.

The first reaction, blocking, is also the easiest. It is achieved by

simply holding one’s breath for four or five seconds (anything much

longer may make your polygrapher suspicious)

as illustrated in the DoDPI graphic below

The second reaction, a respiration rate decrease, may be produced

by simply breathing more slowly for

the asking of the next question:

The third scorable reaction, a change in inhalation/exhalation ratio,

may be effected by exhaling more slowly than inhaling for 5-15

seconds, ending before the asking of the next question:

The fourth reaction, a decrease in amplitude (also known as suppression),

may be produced by taking several shallower breaths and

after breathing out,30:5-15 seconds, ending before

then returning to one’s baseline breathing pattern, as illustrated

before the asking of the next question:

The fifth reaction is similar to the fourth, except that breathing

becomes shallower gradually before returning to one’s baseline

breathing pattern. Again, this should be done for 5-15 seconds,

ending before the asking of the next question:

below. This should be done over the course of 5-15 seconds, ending

Cardio/Electrodermal Countermeasures

In addition to the breathing countermeasures described above, you

can enhance your cardio (heart rate and blood pressure) response

to the “control” questions by choosing

them may be overkill) of the following two, additional countermeasures.

These countermeasures may also produce an associated

electrodermal response:

1.

in your head as quickly as you can. For example, divide

one (and only one, as combiningMental countermeasures: Perform mathematical calculations183 by

4

focused concentration is also effective. For example, pick an

arbitrary number (say

or calculate the square root of 223. Other activity that requires854) and count backward by 7s as quickly

exciting thoughts, (e.g., falling off a cliff, an encounter with a

rattlesnake, being raped at knifepoint—use your imagination).

You want to think of something that will make your heart

race and cause an increase in blood pressure. Again, begin

either as soon as you recognize a “control” question, or right

after answering the “control” question, and continue for

as you can (Honts et al., 1994). Alternatively, you may think8Ð20

seconds, but no longer than the beginning of the next question.

A breathing reaction may naturally accompany such mental

activity without your having to think about it.

2.

hard enough to produce moderate pain, but don’t cut your

tongue. (Honts

either as soon as you recognize a question as a “control” question,

or right after answering the “control” question, and continue

for

the next question. If you start biting as soon as you recognize

the “control” question, you will of course pause long enough

to answer the question, and then resume the tongue bite. Be

subtle, your polygrapher mustn’t notice. You can practice this

“pain countermeasure” in front of a mirror.

Tongue biting. Bite down slowly on the side of your tongueet al., 1985, 1994; Stewart, 1941) Again, begin8Ð20 seconds, but no longer than the beginning of

What About the Anal Sphincter Contraction?

The first three editions of

constriction of the anal sphincter muscle as a physical countermeasure

to be applied timely with the asking of the “control” questions.

This is one of the most discussed polygraph countermeasures

(Lykken,

well wonder why it has been dropped from this book.

In recent years, polygraph manufacturers such as Lafayette and

Axciton have begun marketing piezoelectric sensor pads that they

claim aid in the detection of physical countermeasures. These pads

are typically placed on the seat of the polygraph chair, and additional

The Lie Behind the Lie Detector included1998; Williams 1996; Reid & Inbau, 1977), and readers may

pads may also be placed on the armrests or beneath the subject’s

feet. While no polygrapher has ever demonstrated any ability to

detect the anal sphincter contraction employed as a countermeasure,

even with the aid of such pads, we cannot exclude the possibility

that a sphincter contraction

weight distribution over the surface of a piezoelectric sensor pad.

Given this uncertainty, we believe that mental countermeasures or

tongue-biting, which plainly

preferable.

might result in a detectable change incannot be detected by such means, are

Countermeasures and the “Stim Test”

Don’t try to mystify your polygrapher by producing a reaction to a

card or number other than the one you actually picked or wrote

during the “stim test” (see pp.

breathing and cardio countermeasures you’ve learned to augment

your physiological responses as you answer the question about the

number or card

think that you really

when you react strongly to the “control” questions.

89Ð92). Instead, by employing theyou actually picked, you can make your polygrapherare a “screamer,” and he won’t be surprised

Practice Makes Perfect

You should practice both the breathing and cardio countermeasures

until you can employ them at will and with confidence. It would be

wise to re-read Chapters

3 and 4 of this book several times.

What About the Relevant Questions?

You may naturally be upset at being asked accusatory questions

such as “Did you leak that memo?” or “Have you committed an act

of espionage against the United States?” Don’t worry. Just maintain

your baseline breathing pattern. Your mind should be more at ease

knowing that you—and not your polygrapher—are in control. Even

if you produce a slight response when asked the accusatory relevant

while answering the “control” questions.

questions, you will have artificially produced stronger responses

Countermeasures and the Relevant/Irrelevant “Test”

If you encounter a Relevant/Irrelevant “test” (see pp.

of the much more common “Control” Question “Test,” don’t worry!

Because the polygrapher typically places more reliance on his subjective

impression of the subject’s honesty with this technique, the

behavioral countermeasures discussed earlier in this chapter will be

of increased importance, and combined with a lack of any substantive

admissions on your part, may well be enough to get you through

the “test.”

In addition, recall that with this technique polygraphers look for

“consistent, specific, and significant” responses to a particular relevant

question over multiple charts. You can prevent such a pattern

from occurring by simply producing responses to two differing

groups of two relevant questions within the different chart presentations.

117–120) instead

It’s Not Over Till It’s Over

Remember to continue your baseline breathing pattern until the

pneumograph tubes are removed from your chest and abdomen.

If you have correctly identified the “control” questions and applied

the countermeasures described above, you should have produced a

strongly “truthful” chart.

To Explain or Not to Explain

Responses to Relevant Questions

At some point in the “in-test” phase, your polygrapher may turn

off the polygraph instrument, sit down in front of you, tell you that

a question is troubling you, and ask you if there is anything you

would like to get off your chest before a repeat polygraph chart is

done. This is a commonly-used bluff. Don’t fall for it.

If you have agreed against our advice to submit to a polygraph

interrogation in a criminal investigation, then under no circumstances

should you try to explain why you might have reacted to a

question. Remember that any minor admissions you make at this

point are likely to be blown out of proportion. Maintain your truthfulness

politely, but firmly. “I told you the truth, nothing is bothering

me about that question.”

If, however, you have submitted to a pre-employment or postemployment

polygraph screening interrogation, then you should

have some explanation prepared in advance that cannot be turned

into a damaging admission, just in case your polygrapher tells you

that one of the relevant questions really seems to bother you. If you

refuse to offer any explanation at all as to why you might have

reacted to a certain relevant question, then your polygrapher might

interpret it as stonewalling and use his discretion to render an adverse

opinion. Thus, you should appear concerned and puzzled as you

offer a pre-planned explanation. Some examples of explanations

that cannot be twisted into damaging admissions include:

• “All I can think of is that I’ve always felt guilty when I’m

accused of something. When I was a kid, if my Dad asked me if I

had done something bad or a teacher accused me of copying

someone else’s homework, even if I hadn’t, I’d get upset, and I

just knew I looked guilty to them.”

• “The only thing that comes to mind is that I’m in the middle

of reading a Tom Clancy novel which involves espionage/drug

dealing.” (If you use an explanation like this, be prepared to name

the book, and be sure you’re familiar with the story, just in case.)

• “I recently heard that an old childhood friend of mine died

of a drug overdose. I hadn’t seen him in years. I never would have

imagined that he would grow up to become a drug abuser. I

polygraph countermeasures

153

couldn’t help thinking of him when you asked me the question

about drug use.”

You want to make certain that your “throw-away” explanation does

not invite further interrogation. For example, if the last explanation

in the above list referred simply to “a friend” rather than to “an old

childhood friend” whom you hadn’t seen in years, it might invite

interrogation about the kind of people with whom you associate.

Don’t memorize and repeat any of the above explanations word

for word! Again, polygraphers are reading this book, too, and if you

recite any of the explanations provided here verbatim, your polygrapher

may catch on. Instead, have a couple explanations based

on your own life experience handy before you go into your polygraph

interrogation.

Be especially careful with any throw-away admissions you make

regarding drug use. Something as simple as admitting that you

took a prescription drug every four hours instead of the every six

your doctor prescribed, or that you lent a college roommate a handful

of prescription acne treatment cream, could well be written up by

the polygrapher as, “In the post-test interview, the applicant admitted

to illegal drug use that he did not disclose in his application.” (We

are aware of a case involving an applicant for employment with a

federal law enforcement agency where this actually happened.)

If your polygrapher remains unsatisfied after you have offered

your explanation as to why you might have reacted to one of the

relevant questions, then you should offer no further explanation. “I

told you the truth. I can’t think of any other reason why I might

have reacted when you asked that question.”

Which Question Bothered You the Most?

After collecting the polygraph charts, rather than directly accusing

you of deception, your polygrapher may begin by asking

you to tell

him

the “control” questions as being the one that most troubled you.

which question troubled you the most. Be sure to name one of

You might also have an innocuous explanation prepared, for example,

“I was most troubled by the question about lying to a loved

one, because I suddenly remembered that last month, I told my

mother-in-law that I couldn’t come over on the weekend to paint

her house because of work, but I actually had a fishing trip planned.”

(Again, don’t memorize and repeat the foregoing explanation word

for word! Come up with your own.)

Don’t Stay for a “Post-Test” Interrogation

After you’ve gone through all the question repetitions, your polygrapher

may attempt to subject you to a “post-test” interrogation.

He may tell you that your charts show deception (even if, based on

polygraph doctrine, they don’t), and that he can’t help you unless

you admit to whatever it is that was bothering you. Again, don’t fall

for this bluff. Your polygrapher is not there to “help” you. He is

not going to “go to bat” for you against headquarters. The sole

purpose of the “post-test” interrogation is to obtain a confession or

damaging admission. If your polygrapher attempts a “post-test”

interrogation, it is a good sign that you have already “failed.”

We believe that ethics dictate that one should be truthful with a

potential employer from the earliest point in the application process.

Having provided truthful information, under no circumstances

should you deviate from what you provided, no matter how hard

your polygrapher may lean on you. Remember that even an innocent

remark can be twisted into a damaging “admission.”

nothing to gain by remaining for a “post-test” interrogation. While

a “failed” polygraph “test” can be detrimental to your future employment

potential (both with the testing agency and others), a

polygrapher’s report that you admitted to withholding information

31 You have

can be absolutely devastating. Politely, but firmly, terminate the

lying. I don’t understand. I have nothing more to say to you. Good

day.”

In terminating the interrogation, be sure to avoid the following

mistake, which Reid (

deception:

interrogation, and leave. “I told you the truth, but you say I’m1982) held was the surest behavioral sign of

The most significant behavior symptom that is indicative of guilt

is after a subject has been accused as guilty during an interrogation

and denies his implication, but while being dismissed turns to

the examiner, shakes his hand and says, “sorry to have cause you

so much trouble?”

A Note to CIA and NSA Applicants

If your polygraph examination is for employment with the CIA or

NSA, do not be surprised if you are told that you are “having

problems” at the end of your polygraph session, subjected to a

“post-test” interrogation, and scheduled for a “re-test.” It seems to

be standard operating procedure for these agencies to subject applicants

to more than one polygraph session. One recent CIA applicant

has explained how his polygraph operator, who had led him

to believe that he had just one shot at the polygraph, falsely accused

him of deception, subjected him to a full-blown “post-test” interrogation,

and then left the room

32:

He returns. Here it comes I think. To my surprise he announces

he has spoken to a supervisor about my case. I am being allowed

a chance to retest. I’m ecstatic. “Because we want you to pass

your polygraph, we are going to go ahead and schedule another

polygraph exam tomorrow to see if we can’t help you clear the

test. You have to understand, this is a rare second chance. We

don’t do this often. We’re doing this because we want to try to

work with you. I want you to think very carefully about what has

happened here today and reconsider some of the answers you

have given.”

I return to the waiting area. Other applicants are there, waiting.

I’m surprised to hear from their conversations that nearly all of

them have been offered “rare” second chances to retake the polygraph

the next day.…

And in the NSA, it is not unusual for applicants to be subjected to

as many as three polygraph examinations—the number that the

NSA polygraph unit is authorized to administer without approval

from above.

33

Can’t Polygraphers Detect Countermeasures?

Although polygraphers frequently claim that any experienced examiner

can easily detect countermeasure attempts, peer-reviewed research

suggests that they cannot detect the kinds of countermeasures

described in this book at better than chance levels of accuracy.

(Honts et al.

1985, 1994) Indeed, since it began publication in 1972,

Polygraph,

has not published a single article explaining how polygraphers

can detect such countermeasures! In January

C. Richardson, the FBI’s recently retired senior scientific expert on

polygraphy, reiterated a challenge to the polygraph community to

the quarterly publication of the American Polygraph Association,2002, Dr. Drew

prove its claimed ability to detect polygraph countermeasures. At

polygraph countermeasures

157

the time of writing (March

not been answered.

2005) Dr. Richardson’s challenge has34

Polygraph Counter-countermeasures

Although no polygrapher has yet demonstrated any ability to reliably

detect countermeasures, the polygraph community does have a number

of techniques that may be used in an attempt to detect or deter

them. We will briefly discuss some of these here.

35

Silent Answer Test

In this technique (Matte,

catch examinees off guard, the examinee is told to remain silent

during the “in test” phase and to answer the questions in his/her

head. Just as in normal polygraph examinations in which one answers

out loud, the way to pass the Silent Answer Test is produce stronger

reactions to the “control” questions than to the “relevant” questions.

Don’t do anything differently.

1996), which is apparently intended to

Yes Test

In this technique (Reid & Inbau,

answer all questions “Yes.” (In some cases, the “control” questions

may be left out.) The idea is to trick the subject who has been

augmenting his/her reactions to the “control” questions into producing

reactions to the relevant questions insead. If he/she does so,

1977), the subject is instructed to

countermeasure use is inferred. If you encounter the “Yes Test,” be

careful

“control” questions are included, you still want to show reactions

to them.

not to augment reactions to the relevant questions. If the

Referring to Irrelevant Questions as “Control” Questions

Another counter-countermeasure approach that seems to be in use

is the following: during the pre-test phase, the polygrapher will

deliberately refer to one or more irrelevant questions as “control”

or “comparison” questions in an attempt to mislead the examinee.

If the examinee then shows strong reactions to any of these irrelevant

questions, the polygrapher infers that countermeasures have been

used.

Time Bars on Irrelevant Questions

The polygrapher may also apply “time bars” to irrelevant questions

in an attempt to make them appear more like “control” questions.

Examples of time-barred irrelevant questions include, “Between

1996

and

2000, did you attend Georgetown University?” and, “Before

2005

strong reactions to a time-barred irrelevant question, countermeasure

use may be inferred.

, did people sometimes call you Henry?” If the examinee shows

“Dropping” of Polygraph Jargon

The “dropping” of polygraph jargon may be used as a countercountermeasure

technique with subjects who deny having researched

polygraphy. For example, in the case of an examinee whose charts

are scored as passing, after the “in-test” or chart-collection phase,

the polygrapher may casually inform the examinee that his polygraph

results are “NDI.” An examinee who has not researched the polygraph

should not understand that “NDI” means “No Deception Indicated”

(that is, he/she has passed), and should appear confused by the

examiner’s statement. On the other hand, if the examinee appears

relieved by the news that his charts were “NDI,” it would suggest

that the examinee has, in fact, researched polygraphy, and it might

Alternatively, the polygrapher might use the term “NSR,” which is

shorthand for “No Significant Response.” Some agencies prefer to

use this term in the context of screening examinations instead of

“NDI.”

This ruse may also be used with subjects whose charts are scored

as “failing.” In such cases, the polygrapher may start by telling the

examinee that his charts are “DI,” which is shorthand for “Deception

Indicated” (or possibly “SR” for “Significant Response”). Again,

the subject who has not researched polygraphy should not understand

the meaning of either of these terms.

be further inferred that the examinee has employed countermeasures.

Sensor Pads and Strain Gauges

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, some polygraph instruments

may be equipped with one or more piezoelectric sensor pads, typically

placed on the seat of the polygraph chair, and optionally on the

armrests and under the subject’s feet as well. The manufacturers

claim, without offering any scientific evidence, that these devices

may be used to detect physical countermeasures such as the anal

sphincter contraction. Some polygraphers may alternatively employ

one or more pneumatic (air-filled) sensor pads or a strain gauge

(typically placed under the front legs of the chair). Note that these

various pads and gauges clearly

presented in this book (breathing manipulations, mental

countermeasures, and tongue-biting).

cannot detect the kinds of countermeasures

What If I’m Accused of Employing Countermeasures?

The countermeasures we’ve discussed produce physiological responses

that are indistinguishable from those that polygraphers believe

to be associated with truth-telling concerning the relevant issues.

But if the polygrapher (or his boss) was already suspicious of you

before the polygraph interrogation, he may remain suspicious even

after you produce a “truthful” chart. He may accuse you of having

employed countermeasures, even though he can’t prove it.

This situation may be more likely if you have “failed” a polygraph

interrogation in the past. Perhaps you are reading this book because

you told the truth but “failed,” and you want to make sure that you

are not a false positive victim a second time. Your polygrapher will

be biased against you based on the earlier polygraph chart reading,

and may well be suspicious when you pass your second polygraph

interrogation with flying colors.

Your polygrapher might try the following bluff in an attempt to

get you to admit to employing countermeasures. He’ll turn off the

polygraph, disconnect the pneumograph tubes, arm cuff, and electrodes,

pull up a chair knee-to-knee with you, look you dead in the

eye, and in a calm voice declare, “I know what you’re doing.”(London

& Krapohl,

or offended as he delivers his bluff. Don’t fall for it!

Another bluff you may encounter is this: your polygrapher will

tell you that it’s “obvious” that you’re manipulating the results.

He’ll tell you he thinks you’re honest, and he would like to help

you pass, but he can only do so if you admit to having used countermeasures.

He might at this point even tell you about a person his

agency recently hired who was only able to pass the polygraph after

admitting to having foolishly used countermeasures he had read

about on the Internet. (Some polygraphers may even mention

AntiPolygraph.org by name.) Don’t be fooled: this person who admitted

to using countermeasures, passed, and went on to be hired

does not exist.

If your polygrapher attempts either of these bluffs with you, you

should appear to be confused, “I didn’t do any of the things you

said. I told you the truth.” Remember the first rule we discussed at

the beginning of this chapter: make no admissions! And the most

damaging admission you could possibly make (in your polygrapher’s

mind) is that you employed countermeasures.

1999) Alternatively, your polygrapher may appear angry

polygraph countermeasures

An Anecdote

During the Department of Energy’s public hearings on polygraph

policy (U.S. Department of Energy,

who before his retirement was in charge of countermeasures training

at DoDPI, attempted to convince his audience of scientists and

engineers that nowadays, polygraphers are able to detect countermeasures

such as those we’ve discussed in this book:

1999b), Dr. Gordon H. Barland,

We now are training our examiners how to detect people who are

trying to manipulate their results, and we have learned a lot about

how people go about doing that.

Earlier this year we published a case where Doug Williams

36

had given information to a person on how to beat the polygraph,

but he was not successful.

37

But Dr. Barland forgot to mention that the person “was not successful”

because he

Had he not made this admission, he might have “passed.”

admitted to having employed polygraph countermeasures!38

DoDPI itself uses Doug Williams’ manual, “How to Sting the

Polygraph” (Williams,

one at DoDPI has come up with a reliable method for detecting

these countermeasures, and Dr. Barland’s misleading statement be-

1996) in its countermeasures training. No

fore an audience of top-notch atomic scientists and engineers is

testimony to the polygraph community’s consternation over polygraph

countermeasures.

If DoDPI had indeed developed a reliable method for detecting

polygraph countermeasures, one would expect that instead of discouraging

countermeasure attempts, DoDPI would keep mum and

give special scrutiny to those caught employing countermeasures.

Instead, Dr. Barland tried to scare his audience with misleading

information.

The federal polygraph community also played games with the

National Academy of Sciences, stonewalling it with regard to purported

federal countermeasure studies as it conducted its review of

the scientific evidence on the polygraph (National Research Council,

2003

, p. 118):

…we were advised by officials from DOE and DoDPI that there

was information relevant to our work, classified at the secret level,

particularly with regard to polygraph countermeasures. In order

to review such information, several committee members and staff

obtained national security clearances at the secret level. We were

subsequently told by officials of the Central Intelligence Agency

and DoDPI that there were no completed studies of polygraph

countermeasures at the secret level; we do not know whether

there are any such studies at a higher level of classification.…

Paul M. Menges, who teaches DoDPI’s countermeasure course for

polygraph examiners, wrote an article for

argues that making countermeasure information available to the

public is unethical and should be stopped (Menges,

even goes so far as to suggest that providing information such as

that contained in this book should be outlawed! Would a federal

polygraph examiner be making these arguments if the polygraph

community truly had effective and reliable counter-

Polygraph in which he2002). Menges

polygraph countermeasures.                                                                                                                

Keep Notes!

As soon as your polygraph interrogation is over, take detailed notes

for your personal records. You might take a portable tape recorder

with you for this purpose and leave it in your car, briefcase, or

purse. Often, you will not be told whether you passed or failed

before you leave. If you have employed the methods described in

this book, you should have handily passed. But you may have made

a mistake. Or your polygrapher may have decided even before asking

his first question that you are not going to pass. In the event you

are later told you failed or that your results were inconclusive, your

contemporaneous notes will be of great importance.

A common tactic used during the “pre-test” phase to manipulate

the subject into a denial goes as follows:

The polygrapher introduces the control question, for example,“

Have you ever told a lie?”

The examinee responds affirmatively and explains some minor instance.

you ever

From: Anti-Polygraph.org, http://antipolygraph.org/lie-behind-the-lie-detector.pdf 

Polygraph Countermeasures